4Use of spices in cooking was to mask taste of spoiled food. Within the last 15 years, the use of supercritical fluids, especially supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2), has gained popularity for certain sterilizing applications. The alkylating agents are a group of strong disinfecting chemicals that act by replacing a hydrogen atom within a molecule with an alkyl group (CnH2n+1), thereby inactivating enzymes and nucleic acids. a. Q 39 Q 39. H. Pylori has been found in the gastrointestinal tracts of persons suffering from duodenal ulcers. [8] Silvadene cream is commonly used to treat topical wounds and is particularly helpful in preventing infection in burn wounds. HEAVY METALS - Compounds made with mercury, silver, copper and tin have long been used for their antiseptic properties. (b) Eating utensils contain small amounts of silver to inhibit microbial growth. Phenol and phenolic compounds have been used to control microbial growth. Yao, C.S. They are also active against fungi, protozoans, and enveloped viruses, but endospores are unaffected. of mercury, it is feebly toxic. Heavy metals denature proteins, impairing cell function and, thus, giving them strong antimicrobial properties. Hydrogen peroxide can be used to clean wounds. Step 2: When the coconut oil and beeswax have melted together, remove from heat. They are Fermentation and respiration Enzymes act as Catalysts Mercury in mercurochrome inhibits growth By oxidizing the sulfhydryl groups in cysteine AND by changing the shape of proteins. What chemical reaction do alkylating agents participate in? The bisphenol hexachlorophene, a disinfectant, is the active ingredient in pHisoHex, a topical cleansing detergent widely used for handwashing in hospital settings. Mixtures of quats are also commonly found in household cleaners and disinfectants, including many current formulations of Lysol brand products, which contain benzalkonium chlorides as the active ingredients. 5 fluoropyrimidine. They are Fermentation and respiration Enzymes act as Catalysts Mercury in mercurochrome inhibits growth By oxidizing the sulfhydryl groups in cysteine AND by changing the shape of proteins. It was approved by the FDA in 1982 and is used to prevent fungal growth in various types of dairy products, including cottage cheese, sliced cheese, and shredded cheese. Carbamide peroxide, an ingredient used in toothpaste, is a peroxygen that combats oral biofilms that cause tooth discoloration and halitosis (bad breath). Supercritical carbon dioxide works by penetrating cells and forming carbonic acid, thereby lowering the cell pH considerably. Even when fixed in formalin, affected brain and spinal cord tissues remain infectious. It is used to disinfect a variety of surfaces and surgical and medical equipment. When chlorine gas is mixed with water, it produces a strong oxidant called hypochlorous acid, which is uncharged and enters cells easily. Chloramines and other cholorine compounds may be used for disinfection of drinking water, and chloramine tablets are frequently used by the military for this purpose. 39. scCO2 can also be used for pest control because it can kill insect eggs and larvae within products. By continuing you agree to the use of cookies. (b) The chemical structures of several alkylating agents. Although chlorinated compounds are relatively effective disinfectants, they have their disadvantages. It is used to preserve cheeses, meats, and beverages. d. by changing the shape of proteins. Hydrogen peroxide is used to sterilize items such as contact lenses. Copper sulfate is a common algicide used to control algal growth in swimming pools and fish tanks. This decomposition is accelerated in the presence of light, so hydrogen peroxide solutions typically are sold in brown or opaque bottles. B. through a reversible action. Figure 9 illustrates the five steps of proper handwashing recommended by the CDC. Workers in these industries also need to take care to use these products correctly to ensure their own safety as well as the safety of consumers. Sorbic acid is thought to work by inhibiting various cellular enzymes, including those in the citric acid cycle, as well as catalases and peroxidases. 39. B. through a reversible action. (b) o-Phenylphenol, a type of phenolic, has been used as a disinfectant as well as to control bacterial and fungal growth on harvested citrus fruits. E. Substrate and inhibitor both bind to the active site AND a sulfa antibiotic is a competitive inhibitor. ANTISEPTIC, a substance that inhibits the growth or action of microorganisms, FIST, to strike with the tightly closed hand, "Down by the River" supergroup, initially. Commonly used chemical preservatives include sorbic acid, benzoic acid, and propionic acid, and their more soluble salts potassium sorbate, sodium benzoate, and calcium propionate, all of which are used to control the growth of molds in acidic foods. Figure 11. Chemical preservatives are used to inhibit microbial growth and minimize spoilage in some foods. US Food and Drug Administration. It is a clear liquid with a strong odor and has the ability to kill endospores. Organic mercury compounds have been used as topical disinfectants (thimerosal, nitromersol, and merbromin) and preservatives in medical preparations and grain products (both methyl and ethyl mercurials). Some may irritate the skin, nose, or eyes of some individuals, and they may not completely eliminate certain hardy organisms from contaminated drinking water. In normal saline which is feebly alkaline it is much more stable and appears to keep indefinitely in the dark. Fetal neurons are more sensitive to the toxic effects of mercury than any other cell type. In the 1860s, British surgeon Joseph Lister (1827–1912) began using carbolic acid, known as phenol, as a disinfectant for the treatment of surgical wounds (see Foundations of Modern Cell Theory). Some spices prevented spoilage. 2015. b. Tincture refers to a disinfecting chemical dissolved in alcohol. To learn more about proper handwashing, visit the, For more information on the handling of animals and prion-contaminated materials, visit the guidelines published on the. pHisoHex is particularly effective against gram-positive bacteria, including those causing staphylococcal and streptococcal skin infections. Ions of heavy metals bind to sulfur-containing amino acids strongly and bioaccumulate within cells, allowing these metals to reach high localized concentrations. D. by changing the shape of proteins. It is also used in the antisepsis of the umbilical cord and the antisepsis of wounds with inhibited scar formation, such as neuropathic ulcers and diabetic foot sores. E. Substrate and inhibitor both bind to the active site AND a sulfa antibiotic is a competitive inhibitor. [4]Thimerosal inhibits DNA methylation. In the 1800s, scientists began experimenting with a variety of chemicals for disinfection. In short, soaps with triclosan may remove or kill a few more germs but not enough to reduce the spread of disease. Microbial Growth Control of Microbial Growth: Introduction 4Early civilizations practiced salting, smoking, pickling, drying, and exposure of food and clothing to sunlight to control microbial growth. Glutaraldehyde is structurally similar to formaldehyde but has two reactive aldehyde groups, allowing it to act more quickly than formaldehyde. Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools. Hydrogen peroxide solutions are inexpensive skin antiseptics that break down into water and oxygen gas, both of which are environmentally safe. When nitric oxide reacts with the heme group within the myoglobin of meats, a red product forms, giving meat its red color. The quaternary ammonium compounds are more widely used as disinfectants than as antiseptics. The halogen fluorine is also known to have antimicrobial properties that contribute to the prevention of dental caries (cavities). Mercurochrome definition, a brand of merbromin. Last, alcohols are used to make tinctures with other antiseptics, such as the iodine tinctures discussed previously in this chapter. C) A sulfa antibiotic is a competitive inhibitor. Handwashing is critical for public health and should be emphasized in a clinical setting. The ethylmercury-containing preservative thimerosal inhibited both IGF-1-and dopamine-stimulated methylation with an IC(50) of 1 nM and eliminated MS activity. The solidifying agent used most successfully in … The term disinfectant is used for an agent used to disinfect inanimate objects or surfaces but is generally to toxic to use on human tissues.. b. (a) Ethyl alcohol, the intoxicating ingredient found in alcoholic drinks, is also used commonly as a disinfectant. D. Mercury is a competitive inhibitor. Mercury in mercurochrome inhibits growth A. through competitive inhibition. Mercury is a competitive inhibitor. It is toxic to the central nervous, digestive, and renal systems at high concentrations, and has negative environmental effects, including bioaccumulation in fish. Refrigeration, certain chemicals, certain antibiotics. D. by changing the shape of proteins. D) by changing the shape of proteins. ... looks like a purine so it inhibits conversion of IMP to AMP so on DNA and RNA where there would have been an A, you now have an I. The bisbiguanides chlorhexadine and alexidine are cationic antiseptic compounds commonly used as surgical scrubs. In the 1800s, scientists began experimenting with a variety of chemicals for disinfection. Mercurochrome is very useful and has been used extensively in years past, but has fallen out of favor because of the temporary tissue staining and because of fears of the small amounts of mercury though they be negligible. Materials put into a chamber in which carbon dioxide is pressurized in this way can be sterilized because of the ability of scCO2 to penetrate surfaces. It accumulates in plaque-forming bacteria, interfering with their metabolism and reducing their production of the acids that contribute to tooth decay. (c) Copper commonly lines incubators to minimize contamination of cell cultures stored inside. In the 1860s, British surgeon Joseph Lister (1827–1912) began using carbolic acid, known as phenol, as a disinfectant for the treatment of surgical wounds (see Foundations of Modern Cell Theory). [6] This finding is even more troubling given the evidence that triclosan may affect immune function in humans.[7]. Sorbic and benzoic acids exhibit increased efficacy as the pH decreases. H. Pylori has been found in the gastrointestinal tracts of persons suffering from duodenal ulcers. Other disinfectants with a less specific mode of action are much less prone to engendering resistance because it would take much more than a single genetic change. Various forms of mercury bind to sulfur-containing amino acids within proteins, inhibiting their functions. Which is True of competitive inhibition? Alcohols are volatile and dry quickly, but they may also cause skin irritation because they dehydrate the skin at the site of application. Figure 12. The use of copper pots for water storage in underdeveloped countries is being investigated as a way to combat diarrheal diseases. Looking at Figure 11, which alkylating agent shown lacks an aldehyde group? (a) Chemical structure of phenol, also known as carbolic acid. It is thought to work by decreasing intracellular pH, interfering with mechanisms such as oxidative phosphorylation and the uptake of molecules such as amino acids into cells. Contaminated waste must be incinerated or autoclaved in a strong basic solution, and instruments must be cleaned and soaked in a strong basic solution. Chlorine gas is commonly used in municipal drinking water and wastewater treatment plants, with the resulting hypochlorous acid producing the actual antimicrobial effect. The alkylating agent formaldehyde (CH2OH) is commonly used in solution at a concentration of 37% (known as formalin) or as a gaseous disinfectant and biocide. L. Birošová, M. Mikulášová. In 1879, Lister’s work inspired the American chemist Joseph Lawrence (1836–1909) to develop Listerine, an alcohol-based mixture of several related compounds that is still used today as an oral antiseptic. [5] In fact, a study conducted by the CDC found detectable levels of triclosan in the urine of 75% of 2,517 people tested in 2003–2004. They inhibit microbial growth by denaturing proteins and disrupting membranes. B) Substrate and inhibitor bind to different active sites. (b) Quats are able to infiltrate the phospholipid plasma membranes of bacterial cells and disrupt their integrity, leading to death of the cell. “Benefits and Risks of the Use of Chlorine-Containing Disinfectants in Food Production and Food Processing: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Expert Meeting.” Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 2009. Bleach is an example of which group of chemicals used for disinfection? Triclosan is a common ingredient in antibacterial soaps despite evidence that it poses environmental and health risks and offers no significant health benefit compared to conventional soaps. Mercury compounds like mercuric chloride are mainly bacteriostatic and have a very broad spectrum of activity. ScienceDirect ® is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. ScienceDirect ® is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. Handwashing is even more important for health-care workers, who should wash their hands thoroughly between every patient contact, after the removal of gloves, after contact with bodily fluids and potentially infectious fomites, and before and after assisting a surgeon with invasive procedures. Although alcohols are not sporicidal, they do inhibit the processes of sporulation and germination. 35 Mercury from the mother's body readily crosses the placenta and accumulates in the fetus, as revealed in post-mortem human and animal studies. Figure 3. “Triclosan and Antimicrobial Resistance in Bacteria: An Overview.” Microbial Drug Resistance 12 no. (ASSISTANT PHYSICIAN, BRISTOL ROYAL INFIRMARY ; DEMONSTRATOR OF PATHOLOGY, BRISTOL UNIVERSITY.). Note the hydrophobic nonpolar carbon chain at one end and the nitrogen-containing cationic component at the other end. It has broad-spectrum activity against yeasts, gram-positive bacteria, and gram-negative bacteria, with the exception of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which may develop resistance on repeated exposure. MedlinePlus says that mercury-containing Merthiolate can cause poisoning if applied to the body in. “Development of Triclosan and Antibiotic Resistance in, AB Dann, A. Hontela. Fish damages your DNA and contains mercury proportional to their size. e. c and d 1. However, bacteria that produce the oxygen-detoxifying enzymes catalase or peroxidase may have inherent tolerance to low hydrogen peroxide concentrations. Figure 1. Phenolics like cresols (methylated phenols) and o-phenylphenol were active ingredients in various formulations of Lysol since its invention in 1889. o-Phenylphenol was also commonly used in agriculture to control bacterial and fungal growth on harvested crops, especially citrus fruits, but its use in the United States is now far more limited. This preview shows page 2 - 4 out of 6 pages.. have an additional binding site that is involved in regulating enzyme activity. One disadvantage of using hydrogen peroxide as an antiseptic is that it also causes damage to skin that may delay healing or lead to scarring. Prions, the acellular, misfolded proteins responsible for incurable and fatal diseases such as kuru and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (see Viroids, Virusoids, and Prions), are notoriously difficult to destroy. Recent research suggests that sodium dichloroisocyanurate (NaDCC) may also be a good alternative for drinking water disinfection. Silver nitrate drops were once routinely applied to the eyes of newborns to protect against ophthalmia neonatorum, eye infections that can occur due to exposure to pathogens in the birth canal, but antibiotic creams are more now commonly used. [2] Triclosan blocks an enzyme in the bacterial fatty acid-biosynthesis pathway that is not found in the comparable human pathway. It also breaks down to environmentally innocuous compounds; in this case, acetic acid and oxygen. It is a strong, broad-spectrum disinfectant and biocide that has the ability to kill bacteria, viruses, fungi, and endospores, leading to sterilization at low temperatures, which is sometimes a convenient alternative to the more labor-intensive heat sterilization methods. E) by oxidizing the sulfhydryl groups in cysteine AND by changing the shape of proteins. urine of rabbits inhibits the growth of B. coli. Currently, local disinfection and capsule incrustation agents, such as mercurochrome and 0. (b) Surgical scrubbing is more extensive, requiring scrubbing starting from the fingertips, extending to the hands and forearms, and then up beyond the elbows, as shown here. Mercury in mercurochrome inhibits growth - through competitive inhibition. Silver has long been used as an antiseptic. As such, it has been used in either liquid form or as a vapor for the sterilization of medical instruments and tissue grafts, and it is a common component of vaccines, used to maintain their sterility. The most commonly used alcohols for disinfection are ethyl alcohol (ethanol) and isopropyl alcohol (isopropanol, rubbing alcohol). Saline solutions and Mercurochrome which contains mercury, Mercury inhibits every metabolic function in the body. C. PABA (para-aminobenzoic acid) is a competitive inhibitor. Because of this, it is used for the storage of tissue specimens and as an embalming fluid. Triclosan is another bisphenol compound that has seen widespread application in antibacterial products over the last several decades. They inhibit microbial growth by denaturing proteins and disrupting membranes. Each of these preservatives is nontoxic and readily metabolized by humans. B. Substrate and inhibitor both bind to the active site. Hydrogen peroxide and peracetic acid, another commonly used peroxygen, each may be introduced as a plasma. The levels of mercury in the brain have been shown to be directly related to the number of amalgam fillings in the mouth. In 1879, Lister’s work inspired the American chemist Joseph Lawrence (1836–1909) to develop Listerine, an alcohol-based mixture of several related compounds that is still used today as an oral antiseptic. "Development of Resistance to Chlorhexidine Diacetate in Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the Effect of a ‘Residual’ Concentration.". Sulfur dioxide gas dissolves in water readily, forming sulfites. Thanks to changes in the way the US Food and Drug Administration regards Mercurochrome™, the product is not readily available in the United States today, although it can be found in many other regions of the world. They inhibit microbial growth by denaturing proteins and disrupting membranes. One way to reduce the potential toxicity of heavy metals is by carefully controlling the duration of exposure and concentration of the heavy metal. As such, quats have the ability to insert into the bacterial phospholipid bilayer and disrupt membrane integrity. What is the effect of poisons such as mercury in antimicrobial products? C. by oxidizing the sulfhydryl groups in cysteine. Use of triclosan over the last several decades has also led to a buildup of the chemical in the environment. Mercurochrome 220-Soluble and Sugar in the Treatment of 1200 Cases of Gonorrheal Urethritis and Complications (With Animal Experimentation) Author links open overlay panel Francis H. Redewill James E. Potter Harry A. Garrison (credit photos: modification of work by Kerry Ceszyk). Germicide : An agent that kills certain micoorganisms. Bisbiguanides were first synthesized in the 20th century and are cationic (positively charged) molecules known for their antiseptic properties. Perhaps more disturbing, some clear risks associated with triclosan-based soaps have come to light. The goal of surgical scrubbing is to reduce the normal microbiota on the skin’s surface to prevent the introduction of these microbes into a patient’s surgical wounds. One common iodophor is povidone-iodine, which includes a wetting agent that releases iodine relatively slowly. In ancient times, drinking water was stored in silver jugs. Control of microbial growth 1. Some of the first chemical disinfectants and antiseptics to be used were heavy metals. The discovery of natural antimicrobial substances produced by other microbes has added to the arsenal of preservatives used in food. Figure 5. [13] Chlorhexidine disrupts cell membranes and is bacteriostatic at lower concentrations or bactericidal at higher concentrations, in which it actually causes the cells’ cytoplasmic contents to congeal. The Environmental Protection Agency’s limit for mercury is an intake of 7 micrograms per day for a 70 kg person. Other phenolics can be derived from creosote, a component of coal tar. Which chemical disinfectant works by methylating enzymes and nucleic acids and is known for being toxic and carcinogenic? Heavy Metals: Include copper, selenium, mercury, silver, and zinc. b. through a reversible action. Another bisbiguanide, alexidine, is gaining popularity as a surgical scrub and an oral rinse because it acts faster than chlorhexidine. Benefits of scCO2 include the nonreactive, nontoxic, and nonflammable properties of carbon dioxide, and this protocol is effective at low temperatures. If you have dental amalgams (these silver colored fillings are actually 50% mercury) the World Health Organization estimates you are exposed to 4 to 21 micrograms per day. Which is true of competitive inhibition? Which solution of ethyl alcohol is more effective at inhibiting microbial growth: a 70% solution or a 100% solution? Institute of Medicine. E) by oxidizing the sulfhydryl groups in cysteine AND by changing the shape of proteins. E. Substrate and inhibitor both bind to the active site AND a sulfa antibiotic is a competitive inhibitor. 3. Monochloroamine, one of the chloramines, is derived from ammonia by the replacement of one hydrogen atom with a chlorine atom. B. through a reversible action. Commonly marketed as Mercurochrome, merbromin was the first of a series of antiseptics that contained mercury, a chemical element that disinfects by disrupting the metabolism of a microorganism. Soaps are salts of long-chain fatty acids and have both polar and nonpolar regions, allowing them to interact with polar and nonpolar regions in other molecules. Control of Microbial Growth: Introduction 4 Early civilizations practiced salting, smoking, Chapter 7: Control of Microbial Growth pickling, drying, and exposure of food and clothing to sunlight to control microbial growth. The prepara- tion is an antiseptic acting powerfully in weak dilu- tion even in the presence of albumin'3; it penetrates deeply and, although it contains 24 per cent. Mercury Exposure During Pregnancy. Eventually, triclosan in wastewater finds its way into surface waters, streams, lakes, sediments, and soils, disrupting natural populations of bacteria that carry out important environmental functions, such as inhibiting algae. 39. Mercurochrome is a disodium compound of mercury and considered as non-poisonous. Mercury … In 1978, the FDA began a review of mercury … Detergents contain synthetic surfactant molecules with both polar and nonpolar regions that have strong cleansing activity but are more soluble, even in hard water, and, therefore, leave behind no soapy deposits. Mercury is associated with reproductive issues, which can present as spontaneous abortions, stillbirth, miscarriage, and low birth weights [].]. neural tube defects, craniofacial malformations, delayed growth, and others []. cleared from the blood faster than methylmercury. Silver nitrate (1%) is sometimes put in the eyes of newborns to prevent gonococcal … The fungus Cryptosporidium, for example, has a protective outer shell that makes it resistant to chlorinated disinfectants. When choosing which to use, it is important to consider the type of microbe targeted; how clean the item needs to be; the disinfectant’s effect on the item’s integrity; its safety to animals, humans, and the environment; its expense; and its ease of use. Chemically, fluoride can become incorporated into the hydroxyapatite of tooth enamel, making it more resistant to corrosive acids produced by the fermentation of oral microbes. Products like Mercurochrome that had been around for years with seemingly no ill effects were given a "generally recognized as safe" status. Other chemicals commonly used for disinfection are the halogens iodine, chlorine, and fluorine. In clinical settings, they may be used as antiseptics or to disinfect surfaces. However, because of concerns about using mercury compounds, these antiseptics are no longer sold in the United States. E. Substrate and inhibitor both bind to the active site AND PABA (para-aminobenzoic acid) is a competitive inhibitor. EXPERIMENTAL AND CLINICAL INVESTIGATION OF MERCUROCHROME. Figure 1. b. Sulfites are used in the wine industry but may cause asthmatic reactions in some individuals. Formaldehyde is very irritating to living tissues and is also carcinogenic; therefore, it is not used as an antiseptic. Why is triclosan more like an antibiotic than a traditional disinfectant? Benzoyl peroxide is a peroxygen that used in acne medication solutions. Initially used in toothpastes, triclosan is now commonly used in hand soaps and is frequently impregnated into a wide variety of other products, including cutting boards, knives, shower curtains, clothing, and concrete, to make them antimicrobial. But are the antibacterial ingredients in these products really safe and effective? (credit a photo: modification of work by D Coetzee; credit b photo: modification of work by Craig Spurrier). Natamycin is an antifungal macrolide antibiotic produced by the bacterium Streptomyces natalensis. The use of metallic copper to minimize microbial growth is also becoming more widespread. RE Marquis. Several other heavy metals also exhibit antimicrobial activity. Contact lens cleaners often include hydrogen peroxide as a disinfectant. Nickel and zinc coatings are now being used in a similar way. A wide variety of chemicals can be used as disinfectants or antiseptics. Sodium hypochlorite is the chemical component of common household bleach, and it is also used for a wide variety of disinfecting purposes. Chemically, phenol consists of a benzene ring with an –OH group, and phenolics are compounds that have this group as part of their chemical structure. They are stable, nontoxic, inexpensive, colorless, odorless, and tasteless. Smithsonian.com January 3, 2014. Dental amalgam used in fillings inhibits bacterial reproduction. Soaps are the salts (sodium salt in the illustration) of fatty acids and have the ability to emulsify lipids, fats, and oils by interacting with water through their hydrophilic heads and with the lipid at their hydrophobic tails. E. by oxidizing the sulfhydryl groups in cysteine AND by changing the shape of proteins. Most enzymes a. are generalists and typically recognize a number of different substrates. Natamycin is also used for meat preservation in countries outside the United States. FREE Shipping on your first order shipped by Amazon. This antiseptic is part of a family of products made with a base of … front 39. C. by oxidizing the sulfhydryl groups in cysteine. Benzalkonium chlorides, along with the quat cetylpyrimidine chloride, are also found in products such as skin antiseptics, oral rinses, and mouthwashes. Suffix stasis: To stop or steady. Which of the following peroxygens is widely used as a household disinfectant, is inexpensive, and breaks down into water and oxygen gas? Bigger=more mercury. This technique is effective against vegetative cells and is also used in combination with peracetic acid to kill endospores. Like other alkylating agents, β-propionolactone binds to DNA, thereby inactivating it. B. enzymes. Heavy metals are not selectively toxic to microbial cells. C. by oxidizing the sulfhydryl groups in cysteine. (credit b: modification of work by “Shoshanah”/Flickr; credit e: modification of work by Herbert L. Fred and Hendrik A. van Dijk). Its efficacy can also be augmented with increased temperature or by rapid cycles of pressurization and depressurization, which more likely produce cell lysis. Another class of chlorinated compounds called chloramines are widely used as disinfectants. Propionic acid is thought to both inhibit enzymes and decrease intracellular pH, working similarly to benzoic acid. Metabolism the sum total of all chemical reactions in a cell 2 Studies done by Buchner showed that ground-up yeast cells were able to convert sugar to alcohol. The salts of most metals are generally too toxic to use on living tissues, but complex organic mercury salts (e.g., mercurochrome, merthiolate) in alcohol solution are highly bacteriostatic and make useful wound disinfectants. Chloramines are relatively stable, releasing chlorine over long periods time. Detectable levels of triclosan have also been found in various human bodily fluids, including breast milk, plasma, and urine. In 1879, Lister’s work inspired the American chemist Joseph Lawrence (1836–1909) to develop Listerine, an alcohol-based mixture of several related compounds that is still used today as an oral antiseptic. Figure 1. [12] Fluoride is the main active ingredient of toothpaste and is also commonly added to tap water to help communities maintain oral health. 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